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A relatively untapped use for computing technology in tertiary teaching involves simulations in which graphics, photographs, sound and video are used to create realistic 'microworlds' which students explore in order to solve a problem. Simulations structure the learning process in quite different ways to textbooks, lectures or videos. One advantage of microworlds is that students construct meaning by actively and selectively working through a variety of information sources, a process which mimics real-world learning and enhances higher order learning outcomes. New educational theories also suggest that learning and memory of principles is enhanced if they are 'situated' in realistic contexts, and there is evidence that such immersive environments can be more motivating than other media. These points are illustrated in a case study of the development of a microworld simulation for teaching in a management course. Other issues discussed include: how realistic such simulations should be; the theoretical bases for learning in such contexts; and how to effectively use simulations in a course.
Consider three scenarios from university teaching:
This paper examines the advantages of IMMSs over traditional teaching methods, along with perceived problems such as a need for high technology to create realism, potential social isolation of learners, and difficulty in promoting higher order learning outcomes. To illustrate these issues we draw on experience in developing an IMMS for teaching research skills in management, using the hotel scenario described above.
Simulations need not simulate real worlds. Amongst Spring's (1990) three dimensions of virtual reality is one called the 'nature of reality', which differentiates: models of the real world; models of fictional but potentially real worlds; and models of totally unreal worlds in which known laws do not operate. The other two dimensions cover the extent to which a participant has control over the IMMS, and the naturalness of the interaction.
In our IMMS a fictional microworld is closely modelled on real organisations. Students are in control of that world as much as they would be in a real hotel. To the extent technology permits, interactions are natural - there are no interface devices such as buttons and menus. To navigate the world one opens doors, takes lifts, or travels by taxi, all by clicking on appropriate objects.
A second advantage stems from educational theory proposing deeper learning occurs where students construct knowledge rather than receive it (e.g., Honebein, Duffy and Fishman, 1993). Simulations require students to make choices and deal with complexity, to choose relevant from irrelevant information. In the hotel simulation, students must interview staff and read official documents to find the problem: answers are fragmentary and contradictory. In reconciling these accounts, students are constructing knowledge of the context of research which is quite different from the knowledge available from lectures or texts.
Thirdly, new theories of 'situated' learning and memory (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989) suggest both outcomes are improved in realistic environments, a theme further discussed below. In our IMMS abstract principles of research methodology are embedded in real contexts, not separated from their application. A fourth benefit is that learning is (almost) experiential, not only in providing experience of the look and feel of the real world but also in allowing students to discover the consequences of actions in ways textbooks and tutorials do not, by experimentation (Senge, 1990). In researching the hotel, students will find their ability to complete the project diminished if they do not make right choices. Unlike an assignment in a real hotel, they may then backtrack and take a better path.
A fifth advantage is that a computer can present information and choices personalised to the learning level and style of the student, through 'scaffolding' (see below) which can be disarrected as proficiency increases. Our students have sources of online help which are tailored to the problem and their progress, not a generalised textbook.
A sixth and important advantage is that simulation learning has an 'immersive' quality quite different from classroom or home study experiences. It creates what Csikzenmihalyi and Csikzenmihalyi (1988) call 'flow' - an intense feeling of engagement more easily observed amongst students playing computer games, board games, watching a movie or reading a novel than in classroom learning. Flow seems to come from exercise of the imagination in a dynamical way, where improved understandings develop over time as plots unravel and twist in unexpected ways. As Laurel (1993) suggests, virtual realities can change education from a problem of adding motivation to boring material to one of working with natural "wildly elaborate and creative" projective powers.
Finally, IMMSs have a powerful ability to facilitate metacognitive learning. In a review of the educational simulation and gaming literature, Goodman (1995) argues that beyond allowing students to put theory into practice, simulations are prime vehicles for facilitating 'practice in theory', for example through formulating generalisations about the studied world. Senge (1990) discusses microworld simulations which help students identify assumptions, hypothesise from inconsistent and incomplete data, collaborate, and reflect on practice. The hotel simulation invites students to develop, communicate and reflect on theories about management problems, notably through a report on their 'field experience'.
Part of the drill is that we lose an engine at a critical period in the take-off. And I made the rotation and I did everything I possibly could and the thing rolled to the right and crashed. And I know that I yelled. I yelled and everybody else yelled ... It is so realistic that it's almost frightening. (p. 33)Immersive simulations such as this are time consuming and expensive to produce. But is this level of realism essential in classroom simulations for learning to occur? Is the physical reality of the learning situation the most critical component? Smith (1987) in his review of research related to simulations in the classroom concluded that the 'physical fidelity' of the simulation materials is less important than the extent to which the simulation promotes 'realistic problem solving processes' (p. 409), a process Smith describes as the 'cognitive realism' of the task (Smith, 1986).
Much research into the realism of learning environments indicates that maximum fidelity does not necessarily lead to maximum effectiveness in learning (Alessi, 1987, cited in Reigeluth & Schwartz, 1989). Many researchers and theorists argue that the natural complexity of many real-life situations is counterproductive to efficient learning.
Cunningham (1984), for example, contends that simulations that are too realistic interfere with the underlying educational objectives:
In constructing the role of police officer, it may not be necessary to include the real-life constraints of traffic jams, panic, job dissatisfaction and the size of the police department ... what could be a learning exercise becomes an effort to understand or administer a complex exercise. (p. 225)Similarly, Reigeluth and Schwartz (1989) recommend that the best instructional design for computer-based simulations is one that begins with low fidelity and progresses in fidelity and complexity as the instruction proceeds.
These approaches concur with the systems model of instructional design which specifies that the instructional sequence should progress from simple to complex (GagnŽ, Briggs, & Wager, 1992; Dick & Carey, 1990). However, they are not consistent with more constructivist approaches to the design of learning environments. Such environments allow for the natural complexity of the real world and preserve the full context of the situation, without fragmentation, simplification and decomposition (Honebein, Duffy, & Fishman, 1993; Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989; Resnick, 1987).
The tendency exhibited in so many learning environments to simplify complex cases and situations, particularly in the initial instruction, can impede the later acquisition of more complex understandings (Spiro, et al., 1991b). Honebein, Duffy and Fishman (1993) also argue that it is not necessary to simplify learning environments to enhance learning, and that providing 'realistic levels of complexity' in a learning environment can help to make learning easier (p. 95).
Spiro, Vispoel, Schmitz, Samarapungavan and Boerger (1987) criticise the tendency to oversimplify learning environments. They suggest this practice is motivated by convenience rather than effectiveness of the learning environment: 'Simplification of complex subject matter makes it easier for teachers to teach, for students to take notes and prepare for their tests, for test-givers to construct and grade tests, and for authors to write texts. The result is a massive "conspiracy of convenience"' (p. 180).
However, a number of researchers and teachers believe that complex, real world learning environments can lead to exceptionally high expectations, and ultimately be counterproductive, with students 'overwhelmed by the complexities of the field' (Sandberg & Wielinga, 1992, p. 136).
Is it ever appropriate to simplify concepts in education? Spiro et al. (1991a) concede that simplification may be appropriate when two essential conditions are met: the learning is at an introductory level and it is conducted in a well-structured domain. However, Honebein, Duffy and Fishman (1993) argue against oversimplification at any level. They recommend that the complexity of the learning environment should 'reflect the complexity of the environment expected in the terminal performance' (p. 96). The aim should therefore be to assist the learner in functioning in the environment rather than to simplify it. Others, such as Perkins (1991) support this position by suggesting that we resist the temptation to over-simplify learning environments, and instead search for new ways to provide appropriate scaffolding and support. The foundation for the notion of scaffolding lay in Vygotsky's (1978) 'zone of proximal development' described as 'the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers' (p. 86). Vygotsky's ideas prompted Bruner and others to develop the notion of scaffolding (Wertsch, 1985), described more recently by Greenfield (1984) as comprising five salient characteristics which apply in both the building and the educational sense. Scaffolding provides a support, functions as a tool, extends the range of the worker, allows the worker to accomplish a task not otherwise possible, and is used selectively to aid the worker where needed (p. 118).
Choi and Hannafin (1995) contend that complex computer-based learning environments require 'powerful, but different roles for teachers' (p. 67) where the emphasis is on the teacher providing scaffolding: the hints, suggestions, critical questions, and prompts to enable students to solve complex, authentic problems.
At the end of a simulation, it may help to discuss the relationship of simulated and real worlds to avoid misleading impressions or oversimplification. The debriefing session is common in other forms of experiential learning, including instructional games and fieldwork. Following the fieldwork analogy, learning can be evaluated by asking students to submit a report which provides an opportunity to develop reflection and communication skills as well as revealing content knowledge.
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| Please cite as: Standen, P. and Herrington, J. (1996). Multimedia simulations: A new use for technology in tertiary education. Different Approaches: Theory and Practice in Higher Education. Proceedings HERDSA Conference 1996. Perth, Western Australia, 8-12 July. http://www.herdsa.org.au/confs/1996/standen.html |